Regarding the origins of Tai Chi, there have been claims that it originated in the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties, even as far back as the Tang dynasty. However, through historical research, it has been proven that these claims are unfounded. Historical records and field investigations confirm that Tai Chi was created in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, with a history of over three hundred years. It is a comprehensive martial art that inherits and develops various styles of boxing popular in the Ming dynasty among the populace and military, combining ancient techniques of guiding (dao yin) and breathing (tu na), and drawing from classical materialist philosophy’s yin-yang theory and the meridian theory of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), thus becoming a martial art that trains both the internal and external aspects. Therefore, Tai Chi is fundamentally a martial art that originates from the masses and integrates various strengths.
For thousands of years, various combat methods created by the laboring people of our country, such as kicking, striking, falling, throwing, and grappling, have developed independently. The creator of Tai Chi integrated various combat methods into the Tai Chi forms and created the two-person push hands method (originally called “jie shou” or “da shou”), allowing practitioners to practice various combat techniques without protective gear, becoming a competitive sport that trains the sensitivity of the skin and internal sensations. Thus, in addition to practicing unarmed combat methods (the five methods of kicking, striking, falling, throwing, and grappling), a new content emerged in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties—push hands.
After integrating guiding techniques and breathing methods, Tai Chi allows practitioners to not only engage in muscle and joint activities during practice but also to coordinate movements with breathing, thereby enhancing internal organ exercise. Therefore, even as the intensity of the exercise increases to explosive strength, practitioners can still “sweat without gasping for breath” during practice, and once proficient, they can maintain a “calm demeanor” and “steady breath”.
The movements of Tai Chi are characterized by arcs, spirals, and twists, guided by consciousness to facilitate the circulation of qi and blood throughout the body; internal strength originates from the dantian, with the spine as the axis, transitioning through the waist and kidneys, rotating the waist and spine, with upward movements involving wrist and shoulder rotations, and downward movements involving ankle and leg rotations, ultimately reaching the “four extremities” (the tips of the hands and feet); the internal organs perform slight self-massage movements, which utilize the meridian theory of TCM that has the function of “communicating the exterior and interior, and circulating qi and blood”.
When practicing Tai Chi, consciousness, movement, and breathing are coordinated simultaneously, embodying the holistic and internal-external unity characteristic of Tai Chi.
We say that Tai Chi is one of the nation’s valuable cultural heritages, as it integrates and synthesizes the excellent achievements of our long-standing martial arts, health preservation methods, breathing techniques, meridian theory, and classical materialist philosophy.
To trace the origins of Tai Chi, one must start with the organization of folk martial arts by Qi Jiguang (1528-1587) during the Ming dynasty.
Chinese martial arts have a long history, and due to the vast population, by the Ming dynasty, there were many styles of boxing, each with its strengths and weaknesses. The famous general Qi Jiguang, in order to train soldiers, compiled a set of thirty-two postures from the renowned sixteen styles of folk boxing, called the “Boxing Classic” (Quan Jing), as a source of martial arts for soldiers practicing with weapons such as swords and staffs. The styles he drew from even included the thirty-two postures of long boxing attributed to Zhao Kuangyin (927-976), the founding emperor of the Song dynasty. Long boxing and short strikes, using both hardness and softness, absorbed the essence while discarding the dross. The combat methods included kicking, striking, grappling, and falling, with his boxing style being “each posture inheriting the next, overcoming the enemy with endless variations,” effectively correcting the prevalent practice of flashy and impractical forms that were merely for show, thus becoming a new martial arts school that met the needs of the times.
From existing historical materials, Qi Jiguang is recognized as an outstanding figure in the study and organization of folk martial arts, aiming to serve the political needs of the time by training soldiers to master practical martial arts for combat, defending the country against pirates in the south and securing the borders in the north. His martial arts served the military, which in turn served the political agenda, aligning with the aspirations of two other famous anti-pirate generals, Yu Dayou (?-1580) and Tang Shunzhi (1507-1560). Qi Jiguang not only humbly learned practical martial arts but also organized various boxing styles, learning staff techniques from Yu Dayou and spear techniques from Tang Shunzhi. His spirit of innovation and bold reform, unbound by ancient methods, greatly influenced the inheritance, study, and organization of martial arts forms in later generations.
Based on extensive historical analysis, over half a century after Qi Jiguang, the new school of Tai Chi was created by Chen Wangting in the late Ming dynasty. Chen Wangting came from a minor bureaucratic family in Chenjiagou, Wenxian County, Henan Province. According to the “Chen Family Genealogy,” Chen Wangting, also known as Zoutian, is the ninth generation of the Chen family. His grandfather, Si Gui, was a magistrate in Didao County, Shaanxi Province, with a stele erected in the second year of the Kangxi reign. His father, Fumin, was a scholar. The stele was erected in the fourth year of the Kangxi reign. His brother, Yu Jie, was a student, also named Zoudan, with a stele. The “Ming Shilu” records that Chen Yu Jie served as an inspector in Huguang and was promoted to deputy envoy in Shandong in the first year of the Wanli reign.
The martial arts of Chen Wangting are only recorded in the “Chen Family Genealogy” as: “Famous in Shandong… the founder of the Chen family’s boxing and sword techniques.”
In the year of Jia Shen (1644), around the time of the fall of the Ming dynasty, Chen Wangting was already old and living in seclusion, creating boxing for his own amusement and teaching his disciples and grandchildren. His legacy includes the lines: “Sighing for the past, clad in armor and wielding weapons… how many times have I faced danger! Grateful for the grace, yet it was in vain! Now, in my old age, I can only carry a volume of the “Huang Ting” with me. When bored, I create boxing; when busy, I farm; in my spare time, I teach some disciples and grandchildren, letting them become dragons and tigers as they wish…”
According to the “Chen Family Boxing and Weaponry Record,” the boxing sets created by Chen Wangting include Tai Chi (also known as the thirteen postures) in five routes, long boxing in one hundred and eight postures (with no repeated posture names), and cannon fist in one route. He absorbed twenty-nine postures from Qi Jiguang’s “Boxing Classic” thirty-two postures.
Chen Wangting is an outstanding figure in the organization of folk martial arts after Qi Jiguang. He interacted with many martial artists, which facilitated the integration of strengths, inheritance, and innovation.
After Qi Jiguang’s success in the south against pirates, he was reassigned to the northern borders. In the second year of the reign of Ming Muzong (1568), he was “in charge of military affairs in Jizhou, Changping, Liao, and Bao, overseeing four garrisons, and working with the governor” (as seen in Qi Jiguang’s “Chronicle of Qi Shaobao”). He was not reassigned to Guangdong until 1583. The “Ming History” states: “Qi Jiguang was stationed for sixteen years, fortifying the borders, and after him, his methods were followed for decades without incident.”
Chen Wangting was evidently greatly influenced by Qi Jiguang in organizing martial arts forms. Qi’s “Boxing Classic” thirty-two postures integrated the essence of ancient and modern sixteen boxing styles, compiling thirty-two postures as a source of martial arts for soldiers. Chen Wangting absorbed as many as twenty-nine postures from it into the Tai Chi forms. (Note 1) The “Boxing Classic” thirty-two postures begins with “Lazy Tie Your Clothes” (Note 2), and Chen Wangting’s seven routes also begin with “Lazy Tie Your Clothes”. The names of the boxing forms and the “General Song of the Boxing Classic” also borrow from Qi’s “Boxing Classic” text. Therefore, it can be said that the creation of Tai Chi is based on the “Boxing Classic” thirty-two postures. As for which other boxing styles were absorbed, although it is impossible to ascertain, the numerous names of the seven sets of boxing suggest that a considerable number of styles were incorporated. The methods of two-person push hands and two-person sticky hands are not recorded in the works of martial artists such as Yu Dayou, Qi Jiguang, Tang Shunzhi, Cheng Chongdou, He Liangchen, and Mao Yuanyi. Among the existing boxing styles, there is also no record of such training methods. This is a unique competitive method created by Chen Wangting, solving the problem of practicing unarmed combat techniques and improving spear techniques without protective gear, which is also a creative achievement in the history of Chinese martial arts.
The first two lines of Chen Wangting’s “General Song of the Boxing Classic”: “Stretching and bending, no one knows; all relies on the entanglement of arms” (“all relies” refers to two people leaning on each other with their arms, using the eight methods of push hands to stick and entangle, practicing the basic principles of introducing and falling empty), succinctly summarize the characteristics and methods of “push hands”. By the end of the 18th century, Wang Zongyue from Shanxi (according to the preface of Wang Zongyue’s “Yinfu Spear Manual” by an anonymous author, Wang Zongyue was in Luoyang in 1791 and in Kaifeng in 1795, working as a teacher), and in the mid-19th century, Wu Yuxiang (1812-1880) and Li Yiyu (1832-1892) from Yongnian, Hebei, each elaborated on the theory and practice of Tai Chi, writing summarizing papers on Tai Chi. Chen Xin, the sixteenth generation of the Chen family from Chenjiagou (1849-1929), expounded on the accumulated experiences of practicing boxing over thirteen years, writing the “Illustrated Explanation of Chen Style Tai Chi”, detailing the principles of each posture, explaining boxing theory with easy principles, and integrating meridian theory; his boxing style emphasizes the combination of hardness and softness, alternating between fast and slow, and the transformation of internal strength, with the core function of silk reeling strength. These classical Tai Chi papers have become guiding theories for practicing Tai Chi and push hands.
In summary, the martial arts materials passed down from Chen Wangting show several creative achievements in his research and organization process.
1. Combining martial arts with “guiding” and “breathing”.
China has a long-standing health preservation method—”guiding techniques” that involve bending and stretching to move the body, and “breathing techniques” that advocate abdominal deep breathing, which can be found in the works of Laozi, Zhuangzi, Mencius, and Qu Yuan from the 4th century BC. The “Six Animal Play” compiled by Liu An during the Han dynasty and the “Five Animal Play” adapted by the great physician Hua Tuo at the end of the Han dynasty are health methods that combine breathing movements with imitating the movements of animals, which later became the methods of internal qigong.
Tai Chi combines the coordinated movements of hands, eyes, body, and footwork with “guiding” and “breathing”, making Tai Chi a holistic, internally unified internal skill boxing exercise. During training, it requires a close combination of consciousness, breathing, and movement to achieve the goal of “internal and external unity”. This is indeed a valuable creation.
2. Spiral entangling movements, with actions characterized by arcs, are highly consistent with the principles of meridian theory.
Meridians refer to the pathways of qi and blood throughout the body. They have the function of “communicating the exterior and interior, and circulating qi and blood”. Tai Chi movements require spiral stretching and rotation, advocating “using intention to guide qi, and using qi to move the body”, requiring the waist and spine to act as the axis, with slight rotations to drive the limbs in rhythmic movements; it requires the whole body to be relaxed, allowing qi and blood to flow smoothly to the tips of the hands and feet, etc. These are also based on meridian theory.
3. Creating the competitive sport of two-person push hands.
Push hands, formerly known as “jie shou” or “da shou” in Chenjiagou, is a comprehensive practical combat method in Chinese martial arts. Since ancient times, there have been five separate practice methods: kicking, striking, falling, throwing, and grappling. The falling method focuses only on falling, not striking, and has developed independently for thousands of years. The other four methods, while also integrating training, still have their unique characteristics. The distinction between southern boxing and northern leg techniques during the Tang dynasty indicates this divergence. Famous practitioners of Qi Jiguang’s time, such as “Li Bantian” from Shandong for kicking, “Eagle Claw King” for grappling, and “Qian Die Zhang” for falling, each excelled in their respective techniques. Moreover, due to the significant harm associated with kicking, striking, falling, and grappling, these methods have traditionally been practiced mostly in a hypothetical or symbolic manner, which opened the door to flashy techniques. The accumulated experiences of predecessors, due to insufficient practice, made it difficult to improve combat skills, and wandering practitioners often kept their techniques secret for personal gain; this is one reason why some ancient boxing styles lost their true meaning after several generations of transmission.
The push hands method of Tai Chi focuses on entangling and sticking, training the sensitivity of skin touch and internal sensations, integrating grappling, throwing, and striking techniques, while also developing further. For example, the grappling method does not limit itself to merely seizing the opponent’s joints but emphasizes seizing the opponent’s energy path, which is a higher level of technique than general grappling. The Chen family’s push hands method was initially very combat-oriented, similar to wrestling, and had a strong combative nature, thus having considerable value in developing strength, endurance, speed, sensitivity, and skill. At the same time, due to the potential harm of kicking, only the footwork from the falling method was adopted in push hands.
The emergence of the push hands method solved the issues of space, protective gear, and specialized clothing in practical combat training, becoming a competitive sport that can be practiced anytime and anywhere by two people, and injected a new content—push—into the combat methods of Chinese martial arts (kicking, striking, falling, grappling, and throwing).
4. Creating the basic practice methods of sticky hands that do not detach, allowing for the transformation of internal strength.
Based on the “listening strength” method practiced during push hands to train the sensitivity of skin touch and internal sensations, the two-person sticky hands method was subsequently created. This is also one of the unique achievements of Tai Chi. This paired practice method solves the problem of practicing actual thrusting techniques without protective gear. When practicing Tai Chi sticky hands, the movements are entangled and retreating, swift as wind and clouds, sealing and throwing, in a cyclical manner, opening a simple and effective path for improving techniques in thrusting.
5. Developing boxing theory based on the meaning of Tai Chi.
Chen Wangting’s “General Song of the Boxing Classic” consists of twenty-two seven-character lines, which is the original theory of Tai Chi, summarizing ancient combat techniques (kicking, striking, grappling, falling) in a boxing treatise. It elucidates the strategies and tactics of attack and defense, thus serving as a comprehensive boxing theory for the seven Tai Chi forms. By comparing the “General Song of the Boxing Classic” with Qi Jiguang’s “Boxing Classic thirty-two postures” (for example, the “General Song of the Boxing Classic” states, “Who knows the clever tricks of evasion? Who claims to be defeated by feigning defeat?”, and “Horizontal and vertical cuts are even more extraordinary”, while the “Boxing Classic thirty-two postures” states, “How can I be evaded by clever tricks?”, “One fall from above, one fall from below”, “Falling dragon feigning defeat”, “A whip horizontally cuts”, “Advancing and retreating must not be delayed”, and “Attacking and retreating must be strong against the weak”), it is not difficult to see how Chen Wangting absorbed the essence of the summaries made by predecessors in boxing theory. However, Chen Wangting was not satisfied with merely absorbing the boxing theories of contemporary masters; he made a series of creative developments based on the integration of knowledge.
Chen Wangting’s originality in boxing theory is reflected in the first two lines of the “General Song of the Boxing Classic”: “Stretching and bending, no one knows; all relies on the entanglement of arms.” “All relies” refers to the eight methods of push hands, where two people lean on each other with their arms, using the eight methods of push hands to stick and entangle, practicing the techniques of understanding and releasing strength through rigorous and correct training, repeatedly practicing to continuously improve technical levels, reaching the advanced level of push hands where “others do not know me, but I alone know others.” The four lines of the old Chen family “Striking Song”: “Pang (lifting hand) and pressing must be serious, following up and down, it is difficult for others to advance; let them use great strength to strike, pulling four ounces to move a thousand pounds,” perfectly explain the opening lines of the “General Song of the Boxing Classic”. This push hands method and the theory of understanding strength were developed on the basis of inheriting traditional martial arts, elevating from external combat techniques to advanced skills of “internal strength transformation”, “internal qi subtle transformation”, and “from familiarity to understanding strength, and from understanding strength to achieving enlightenment”, which has epoch-making significance in the history of Chinese martial arts. At the same time, it laid the foundation for later Tai Chi masters such as Wang Zongyue, Wu Yuxiang, Li Yiyu, and Chen Xin to further develop combat methods and theories.
Due to Tai Chi’s principle of relaxation throughout the body, using intention rather than force as the starting point for training, it requires transitioning from relaxation to softness, using softness to create hardness, and returning to softness, achieving a balance of hardness and softness; the practice of boxing forms requires starting slowly and then speeding up, and then slowing down again, with both softness and hardness, slow enough that others cannot keep up, and fast enough to strike first. In other words, practicing Tai Chi requires achieving the ability to be slow and fast, soft and hard. This perspective, which emphasizes both external form and internal accumulation, provides a very valuable new training method for improving martial arts technical levels.
Today, Tai Chi has become a widely practiced martial art in our country, contributing to the health of the people and gradually attracting the attention of the international sports and medical communities. Tracing back to its roots, Chen Wangting has made significant contributions to the development and creation of Tai Chi.
However, since Tai Chi initially grew and developed in a feudal society, it inevitably carries a layer of feudal dust. In feudal society, the ruling class, through its own scholars and court writers, painted a layer of mysterious colors on things that were popular among the masses, attributing them to “immortals”, “Buddhas”, and “sages” to deify them, in order to numb the people’s will and consolidate feudal rule. Therefore, throughout history, various far-fetched and fabricated claims have arisen regarding the founder of Tai Chi, leading to much debate and confusion. Some say Tai Chi was founded by Zhang Sanfeng in the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties (Note 3), others claim it originated with Xu Xuanping in the Tang dynasty (Note 4), and even more believe that Chen-style Tai Chi was derived from Jiang Fa, who in turn learned from Wang Zongyue (Note 5), and some say Tai Chi is the same as internal family boxing (Note 6), etc. However, after a series of historical verifications and on-site checks of materials, it has been preliminarily confirmed that Tai Chi was founded by Chen Wangting.
Notes
Note 1: The boxing sets created by Chen Wangting absorbed not only Qi’s “Boxing Classic” but also many other boxing styles, which cannot be ascertained. However, from the numerous names of the seven sets of boxing, it is evident that a considerable number of styles were absorbed. According to the “Chen Family Boxing and Weaponry Record”, there are many names for “free fighting” and “short strikes” (including attack and counter methods), as well as the “Eighteen Methods of Grabbing” in grappling. This indicates that the combat methods of Tai Chi at that time were quite comprehensive. It is worth noting that the “Red Boxing” practiced in Shaolin Temple is also mentioned in the “Chen Family Boxing and Weaponry Record”, which states: “To know where this boxing comes from? It is called the Southern Tang under the Taizu.” Another saying in the “Pan Luo Staff Manual” states: “In the ancient temple of Shaolin, there are five hundred monks… To know where this staff comes from? It is passed down in Shaoling” (Shaoling is a phonetic variation of Shaolin). Shaolin’s boxing and staff techniques were already famous during the Sui and Tang dynasties, and many Shaolin monks sacrificed themselves in the war against Japanese pirates during the Ming dynasty. Wenxian is north of the Yellow River, while the Shaolin Temple on Mount Song is south of the Yellow River, just across the river. This is one reason why Tai Chi may have roots in Shaolin boxing. Additionally, according to historical materials, Chen Wangting’s friend, martial artist Li Jiyu, had armed forces stationed at the military stronghold behind the Shaolin Temple before the Ming dynasty, resisting the Ming court’s forced grain tax. Chen Wangting entered the stronghold alone to persuade Li Jiyu not to rebel against the Ming court. This is another reason why Tai Chi may have roots in Shaolin boxing. The existing martial arts literature from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties shows that the techniques of Shaolin boxing are quite similar to those of Chen-style Tai Chi. These are reasonable speculations, provided as notes for reference.
Note 2: The round-collared clothing with a waist belt has been used from the Yin dynasty to the Ming dynasty. Ming people wore long garments tied at the waist, and during boxing practice, they had to roll up their long garments and tuck them into their waist belts for ease of movement. Qi’s “Boxing Classic” begins with “Lazy Tie Your Clothes”, where the left hand lifts the clothing and tucks it into the back waist belt, while the right fist is raised horizontally backward, looking to the left front. The term “Lazy Tie Your Clothes” indicates that when facing an enemy, one casually lifts their clothing to prepare for battle, signifying martial prowess and calmness in the face of danger. Qi’s “Lazy Tie Your Clothes” verse states, “When facing an enemy, if one lacks courage, they are merely sharp-eyed and quick-handed.” Yang Luchan (also known as Luchan) learned boxing from the Chen family, and due to his illiteracy, memorized the boxing manual, which was phonetically transformed into “Lan Que Wei” (Grasping the Sparrow’s Tail), leading to the idealized technique of grasping a sparrow so it cannot fly. The myths surrounding Tai Chi can be viewed in this light.
Note 3: Zhang Sanfeng was a leader of Taoism during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties, who built a hut for cultivation on Mount Taihe (Wudang Mountain) in Hubei. According to the “Ming History” and the compiled “Taihe Mountain Chronicle”, there is no mention of Zhang Sanfeng practicing boxing; even in the manuscript of the “Complete Works of Sanfeng” compiled by Yuan Tong Dao Ren Wang Xiling in 1723 and recompiled and published by Chang Yishan in 1844, although they claim to have seen Zhang Sanfeng from the 14th century, they do not fabricate claims of him practicing boxing or creating Tai Chi. The assertion that Tai Chi was founded by Zhang Sanfeng is a lie that emerged in the late 19th to early 20th century, which can now be verified. Therefore, claiming Zhang Sanfeng as the founder of Tai Chi is not true.
Note 4: Some believe that Tai Chi originated with Xu Xuanping in the Tang dynasty, citing works such as the “Eight Character Song”, “Heart Meeting Theory”, “Great Use Theory”, “Sixteen Key Points Theory”, and “Function Song” as Xu Xuanping’s writings. Judging by the style of these articles, it is clear that they are not from the Tang dynasty. Furthermore, the account of Xu Xuanping in the Song dynasty’s “Chronicle of Tang Poetry” only records that he “fasted and did not eat, moving like a galloping horse, and during the Tang dynasty, he sold firewood in the market. Li Bai sought him but did not meet him, composing a poem at the Wangxian Bridge.” Therefore, this attribution should also be regarded as a mystical fabrication by feudal literati in the late Qing dynasty.
Note 5: This claim originates from Li Yiyu’s (1832-1892) “Preface to Tai Chi”, stating: “Tai Chi does not know who it originated from; its subtleties and intricacies are thoroughly discussed by Wang Zongyue. Later, it was passed down to the Chen family in Chenjiagou, with only a few enlightened individuals.” Upon examining Wang Zongyue’s life (as seen in the preface of Wang Zongyue’s “Yinfu Spear Manual”), he was in Luoyang in 1791 and in Kaifeng in 1795, working as a teacher. This period coincided with the peak of Chen Changxing (1771-1853), the previous generation of Tai Chi practitioners in Chenjiagou. Wenxian is only separated from Luoyang and Kaifeng by the Yellow River, making it reasonable to deduce that Wang Zongyue’s Tai Chi was derived from the Chen family. Jiang Fa was a subordinate of Li Jiyu, who resisted the Ming court’s forced grain tax at the military stronghold behind the Shaolin Temple (as seen in the works of Jing Rihuan’s “Saying Shaolin”, Liu Xian’s “Biography of Liu Xian”, and Wen Ruilin’s “History of the Southern Frontier”, Volume 2, Biography 9, “Biography of Chen Qianfu”). After surrendering to the Qing, he was executed under the pretext of being a traitor, and Jiang Fa fled to Chen Wangting’s place as a servant. The Chen family ancestral hall still preserves a portrait of Chen Wangting, with a person holding a large knife beside him, who is Jiang Fa. Jiang Fa lived about a hundred years before Wang Zongyue, so the claim that Wang Zongyue taught Jiang Fa is clearly erroneous.
Note 6: Huang Baijia from the early Qing dynasty wrote “Internal Family Boxing”, and the names and practices of the internal family boxing described in the book are completely different from those of Tai Chi. Therefore, comparing the internal family boxing and Tai Chi manuals leads to a definitive conclusion that refutes the claim that Tai Chi is the same as internal family boxing.