Click 【Herb Query】, then click the upper right corner 【···】to set as
Starred/Pinned for easy access
The popularity of powdered medicinal formulas in the Song Dynasty has historical roots and social backgrounds.
Firstly, it is related to certain medical activities in the early Song Dynasty. In the sixth year of the Kaibao era (973 AD), Emperor Taizu of Song ordered nine individuals, including the imperial physician Liu Han, Daoist priest Ma Zhi, and Hanlin medical official Qu Xu, to compile the “Kaibao New Detailed Materia Medica” based on references such as “Bencao Shiyi” and “Xinxiu Bencao”. The following year (974 AD), Ma Zhi and others were tasked with further revisions, ultimately naming it “Kaibao Revised Materia Medica”. Additionally, in the seventh year of the Taiping Xingguo era (982 AD), Emperor Taizong of Song commissioned Daoist priests Wang Huaiyin, Wang You, Zheng Qi, and Chen Zhaoyu to compile a large medical formula book titled “Taiping Shenghui Fang”, which was based on the “Treatise on the Origins and Symptoms of Diseases” by the Sui Dynasty’s chief physician Chao Yuanfang, with formulas following thereafter. These medical activities prominently featured Daoist practitioners.
Moreover, in the preface of “Taiping Shenghui Fang”, Emperor Taizong mentioned, “In my past, while in the palace, I sought to collect famous formulas, and through various techniques, I obtained their essentials, compiling over a thousand miraculous formulas, all of which were personally verified and have standards. The goal is to save the people and alleviate their suffering, with a focus on the Hanlin medical officials, each drawing from family traditions and effective prescriptions, totaling over ten thousand.”
It is evident that “Taiping Shenghui Fang” contains miraculous and verified formulas personally collected by Emperor Taizong, indicating his understanding of the efficacy and distinctions of different medicinal formulas.
Daoism and Powdered Formulas
Since ancient times, China has had the concept of the “Four Occupations”—scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants—representing the basic classification of common professions, though their order has varied throughout history. The renowned scholar Gu Yanwu from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties stated in his “Rizhi Lu” that “the four occupations, as mentioned in Guanzi, originated from the Spring and Autumn period’s Prime Minister Guan Zhong, who established the order of ‘scholar, farmer, artisan, merchant’, which has been followed ever since.” The text of “Guanzi” records, “The four occupations are the foundation of the nation and the people.”
By the Song Dynasty, this concept expanded to the “Six Occupations”, which included soldiers and Daoist and Buddhist practitioners as special categories of “people”. The prominent Northern Song politician Fan Zhongyan mentioned in his “Collected Works of Fan Wenzheng” that “In ancient times, there were four occupations; after the Qin and Han dynasties, soldiers and monks made up six occupations.” This understanding reflects that Daoists and Buddhists had become subjects under the secular rulers. To some extent, practitioners of Daoism and Buddhism had become a common profession.
Daoism is a native religion of China, characterized by the belief in the “Dao” as the highest faith. Its establishment is based on ancient concepts of ghost and deity worship, with theoretical foundations in Huang-Lao Daoist thought, evolving from the alchemical practices that emerged during the Warring States period.
The “Book of Wei: On the Origins of Daoism” states, “The origin of Daoism comes from Laozi.” The famous thinker and founder of Daoism, Laozi, wrote the “Dao De Jing” at the request of Yin Xi at Hangu Pass, consisting of five thousand words. Another representative figure of Daoism, Zhuangzi, authored the book “Zhuangzi”. These two works are regarded as essential classics to be recited by later generations of Daoists, indicating that Daoism evolved from Daoist philosophy.
The early formation of Daoism occurred during the Western Han Dynasty, primarily developing among the populace. After nearly a thousand years of development through the Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Daoism underwent transformation and enrichment, gaining significant promotion and popularity among the common people and aristocracy. The Sui Dynasty marked a turning point in the development of Daoism, which reached its peak during the Tang Dynasty. Although feudal rulers continued to support and believe in Daoism from the late Tang to the early Song, it was generally in a period of decline.
The Northern Song rulers inherited the policies of revering and supporting Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism from previous dynasties. The initiators of this trend were Emperor Taizu and Emperor Taizong of Song. Before becoming emperor, Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu) had close interactions with Daoists, utilizing talismans to create public opinion for seizing power during his takeover of the Later Zhou regime, and he also enlisted the support of Daoist Chen Tuan from Mount Hua to gain popular support. After ascending the throne, he continued to pay great attention to the development of Daoism. Emperor Taizong not only inherited and implemented Emperor Taizu’s policies towards Daoism but even surpassed his brother in reverence for Daoism.
With the exemplary role of the two emperors in the early Song, Daoism gained widespread popularity in society. By the end of Emperor Renzong’s reign, the Northern Song’s Five Masters, led by Sima Guang, and the Shu School led by Su Dongpo, as well as Wang Anshi’s Jinggong New Learning, all exhibited Daoist thought to varying degrees. Works such as Zhou Dunyi’s “Taiji Diagram”, Shao Yong’s “Plum Blossom Divination”, and Cheng Yi’s “Yichuan Commentary” all bear the influence of Daoist Chen Tuan’s “Pre-Heaven Diagram”.
The Huang-Lao school, in addition to cultivating internal and external alchemy, also provided medical means to achieve longevity and improve quality of life, making the study and application of medicine a necessity. The “Baopuzi: Inner Chapters” states, “In ancient times, those who practiced the Dao all mastered medical skills.” Chen Yingning also mentioned in his “Detailed Discussion on Immortal Studies” that the relationship between medicine and the Dao of immortality is very close; anyone who studies Daoist techniques must also understand medical skills.
Ge Hong’s “Records of Immortals” documents 84 immortals, 14 of whom are related to medicine. The “Huangdi Neijing”, “Shennong Bencao Jing”, and “Nanjing” are all related to Daoist thought and were likely compiled and organized by Daoists. Additionally, historical records mention figures such as Ge Hong from the Jin Dynasty, Tao Hongjing from the Southern Dynasty, Xu Jian from the Northern Dynasty, Yang Shangshan and Sun Simiao from the Sui and Tang Dynasties, and Wang Huaiyin from the Song Dynasty, all of whom were Daoist physicians who made significant contributions to the development of medicine.
We believe that powdered formulas evolved from elixirs. Elixirs have a history of thousands of years in China, with records in the “Rites of Zhou” stating, “For treating ulcers, use the five poisons to attack them.” Han Dynasty scholar Zheng Xuan commented, “The five poisons are the toxic substances among the five medicines. Nowadays, there are five poisonous medicines made from them, combined with yellow centipedes, stone gall, cinnabar, realgar, and alum, burned for three days and nights, with the smoke collected and applied to the wound, expelling rotten flesh and decayed bones.”
It can be seen that the “five poisons” are the earliest documented elixirs. Later texts such as “Huainanzi” and “Shennong Bencao Jing” also contain some materials related to alchemy. The famous alchemist Wei Boyang (100-170 AD) authored the “Zhouyi Cantong Qi”, which is the earliest existing work on alchemy in the world. Historically famous elixirs such as Hongsheng Dan and Baijiang Dan were made by grinding medicinal substances into powder.
The most famous and widely influential powdered formula in history is likely Wushi San, also known as Hanshi San. The “Baopuzi: Golden Elixir Chapter” records its composition as “cinnabar, realgar, white alum, green lead, and stone gall”. The “Guisi Cangao” states, “The ‘Cold Food Powder’ is said to have originated with He Yan. It is also said to be made from refining milk and cinnabar, which can avoid fire food, hence the name ‘Cold Food’. According to Han Zhang Ji’s ‘Jinkui Yaolue’…”
In the Sui Dynasty, Chao Yuanfang quoted the words of the famous physician Huangfu Mi in his “Treatise on the Origins and Symptoms of Diseases”, stating, “Cold Food and Grass Stone formulas come from Zhongjing.” The “Shishuo Xinyu: Conversations” states, “He Ping Shu: Taking Wushi San not only treats diseases but also makes one feel enlightened.” The use of Wushi San peaked among the literati during the Jin and Wei dynasties, and Lu Xun specifically discussed this in his essay “The Wei-Jin Style and the Relationship Between Literature, Medicine, and Alcohol”, arguing that the attire and lifestyle of Wei-Jin literati were related to the use of Wushi San.
In fact, records of Wushi San can be found as early as in the “Records of the Grand Historian: Biography of Bian Que and Cang Gong”, where a physician of the King of Qi, who fell ill, “refined Wushi San for himself”. Chunyu Yi diagnosed him, stating, “Your illness is due to internal heat. It is said that ‘if one has internal heat and cannot urinate, one should not take Wushi San’. The essence of stones as medicine is potent; if you take it, you will not urinate for a long time, so do not take it. The color will become swollen.” He further analyzed, “What you have discussed is far-reaching. Although Bian Que said this, one must examine and measure, establish standards, weigh, and assess color and pulse. There are methods for excess and deficiency, and one must consider the person’s movement and rest to make a diagnosis. It is said that ‘if Yang diseases are internal and Yin forms are external, do not add potent medicines or stone powders.'”
This indicates that the use of Wushi San may have existed as early as the pre-Qin and Western Han periods, and the self-medication of Wushi San by physicians gradually became a common health product for literati during the flourishing of metaphysics in the Wei-Jin period. Additionally, the contemporary renowned bibliographer and ancient literature scholar Yu Jiaxi also authored “A Study on Cold Food Powder”, providing in-depth analysis of the background, historical trajectory, treated diseases, causes of illness, symptoms after taking it, and methods of rest and moderation, concluding that “the formula originated from Zhang Ji, but it is unknown how the Wei-Jin people used it, as it has undergone numerous modifications, no longer resembling Zhongjing’s original.”
Another famous powdered formula is the anesthetic used in surgical procedures, known as Mafeisan. The “Records of the Three Kingdoms: Biography of Hua Tuo” states, “For those who need to be cut open, they should take wine mixed with Mafeisan, and in a moment, they will feel as if they are drunk and unaware, allowing for surgery. The pain in the abdomen will be cut, washed, and sewn, and within four to five days, they will feel no pain, and the person will not awaken. Within a month, they will recover.” The inventor of Mafeisan, Hua Tuo, was also a Daoist practitioner, and the “Book of the Later Han: Biography of Hua Tuo” describes him as “nearly a hundred years old, yet still robust, and people regarded him as an immortal”; the “Records of the Three Kingdoms: Wei Book: On Techniques” also states, “He understood the techniques of nurturing life, and people regarded him as a hundred years old, yet he appeared youthful.”
Perhaps the earliest powdered formula was the Bingyu San used by Chisongzi, but the clinical application of powdered formulas has indeed existed for thousands of years. The “Fifty-Two Disease Formulas” discovered in the Mawangdui Han Tomb in Changsha in 1973, dating back to the late 3rd century BC during the Warring States period, is currently the earliest known formula book in China, which includes powdered formulas. Powdered formulas are the most numerous dosage forms in this book, but unfortunately, they are not named as such, with one formula stating: “One formula: powdered peony, half a cup, taken in a three-finger pinch.”
The “Huangdi Neijing”, a classic medical text from the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, also records powdered formulas, such as in the “Suwen: On Disease Capabilities”, which states: “If there is a disease with body heat and sweating profusely, with aversion to wind and shortness of breath, what is the disease? Qibo said: The disease is called ‘wine wind’. The emperor asked: How to treat it? Qibo said: Use Ze Xie and Bai Zhu each ten parts, and Mi Xian five parts, combined into a three-finger pinch for after meals.” In the late Eastern Han, Zhang Zhongjing’s “Treatise on Cold Damage and Miscellaneous Diseases” contains many powdered formulas and was the first to propose the name “San”, such as Wuling San, Sini San, Guati San, Muli Zexie San, Danggui Chixiaodou San, Danggui Shaoyao San, Yiyiyu Fuzhi San, and many other famous powdered formulas that are still in clinical use today.
Subsequently, more powdered formulas appeared in Daoist-related medical texts, such as the first clinical emergency manual in China, “Emergency Formulas for After Elbow” compiled by the famous physician, alchemist, and Daoist Ge Hong, as well as the earliest existing surgical monograph on abscesses and traumatic injuries, “Liu Juanzi’s Ghostly Inherited Formulas” (also known as “Immortal Inherited Treatises”), which contains a large number of powdered formulas.
Additionally, powdered formulas are also related to the Daoist practice of consuming herbs, as practitioners must emphasize the consumption of herbal and mineral medicines to seek longevity. Consumption includes not only the commonly understood elixirs made from minerals but also herbal medicines. The “Shennong Bencao Jing” records a total of 365 medicinal substances, divided into superior, middle, and inferior grades, stating, “Those who consume herbs are strong and vigorous, those who consume meat are brave and resilient, those who consume grains are wise and intelligent, those who consume stones are plump and ageless, those who consume mushrooms live long and do not die, and those who consume primordial qi cannot be buried by the earth or killed by heaven. Therefore, consuming good medicines is in harmony with heaven, guided by the sun and moon, and will not perish on earth.”
Among them, the so-called “mineral medicines” require “refining and consuming them”. Ge Hong quoted from the “Four Classics of Shennong”, stating, “Superior medicines make the body safe and prolong life, ascending to become celestial beings.” In the “Baopuzi: Volume on Immortal Medicines”, it is recorded: “Asparagus… can be steamed and cooked in the mountains, and if taken for a long time, it can stop grains. If there is strength, it can be consumed as powder, and its juice can also be made into wine, which is especially good for taking as powder”; “As for the wood mushrooms… the large ones weigh ten pounds, and if powdered, they can lead to five hundred years of life.”
The Song Dynasty’s Zhang Junfang compiled a large Daoist book, “Yunji Qiqian”, which included all ancient Daoist texts before the Song, and it recorded: “Just consume this leaf, either pound it into powder or make it into honey pills, and all will attain immortality”; “… consuming pills and powders should be done with caution”; “There are methods for refining, which must be meticulous; otherwise, it will harm the intestines and cause exhaustion, and for pills and powders, it must be properly pounded and sifted, which is crucial”; “The nature also prefers consumption, and there may be cases of throwing in elixirs or giving pills and powders.” The “Pharmaceuticals Section” records many formulas that can be both powders and pills, such as “Huangdi’s Four Fan Powder: pine resin, Ze Xie, dried ginger, dried rehmannia, mica, cinnamon, and Bai Zhu, eight ingredients, finely processed, mixed evenly, and taken with wine in three spoonfuls, or with water, or made into honey pills the size of soybeans, twenty to thirty pills…”
Sun Simiao also recorded in his “Essential Formulas for Emergency Care: Nourishing Life”: “It is said that in spring, one should take five doses of the Small Continuation of Life Decoction, and one dose of various nourishing powders; in summer, during the great heat, take three doses of Kidney Essence Decoction; in autumn, take yellow pills, etc.” This indicates that not only pills, pastes, and elixirs, most of which are related to Daoist practices, but also powdered formulas are directly related to the Daoist consumption of elixirs and herbal medicines.
Furthermore, the earliest records of “boiled powders” are also related to Daoists. One is in the “Emergency Formulas for After Elbow”, which states in the section on treating epidemic diseases and warm toxins: “To avoid epidemic diseases, use powdered medicines… If the illness has lasted four or five days, boil three liters of water, make a powder, and take one liter to induce sweating.” Another is in Sun Simiao’s “Essential Formulas for Emergency Care”, which contains eleven instances of “boiled powders”, including Dan Shen and Niu Xi boiled powder, Dan Shen boiled powder formula, and Anxin boiled powder, etc.
However, the application of boiled powders can be traced back to Zhang Zhongjing’s “Treatise on Cold Damage and Miscellaneous Diseases”. Although it does not mention “boiled powders” by name, it includes practical applications, including both residue and non-residue consumption. The popularity of boiled powders, according to existing historical materials, began in the late Tang and Five Dynasties, peaked during the Song, and declined during the Ming and Qing. We believe that “powdered formulas” and “boiled powders” are not fundamentally different, merely differing in preparation methods.
It can be seen that with the rise of external alchemy in the early Tang to its decline by the late Tang, certain consumption methods and formulas were absorbed and refined by physicians, which may be one of the reasons for the popularity of powdered formulas in the Song Dynasty.
The Early Song Emperors and Powdered Formulas
Of course, it would be difficult for Daoists alone to promote the widespread use of powdered formulas in the Song Dynasty; the promotion of powdered formulas also benefited from the emperors’ endorsement. The “History of Song” records that founding emperor Zhao Kuangyin and his brother Zhao Kuangyi were born into a military family, and both spent the first half of their lives in military service, but they were also knowledgeable in medicine. Such a unique profession and experience inevitably led to a different understanding and handling of medicine compared to ordinary people.
Historical records indicate that there was once a shortage of medicine in the capital of the Northern Song, Kaifeng. The “Song Huiyao Jigao: Official Positions” states, “In the eighth year of the Yuanyou era (1093 AD), on April 26, an edict was issued: It has been reported that recently, military and civilian personnel in the capital have difficulty obtaining medicine, so the Kaifeng government is to investigate. If there are many sick people, arrangements should be made to select physicians from the Taiyi Bureau to treat them in the military camps and neighborhoods. The officials in this bureau should provide medicine and daily allowances, and if the number of patients is few, they should be dismissed.”; “In the first year of Shaoxing (1131 AD), on November 12, the chief physician of the Taiyi Bureau, Fan Yanduan, reported: Recently, nine students from the Taiyi Bureau have come to request to be employed in the bureau, according to the old laws of their ancestors, to treat the palace guards and various military units, and in case of urgent illnesses, to establish regulations for treatment. This was approved.” The second year of Chongning (1103 AD) mentioned this matter in a discussion, stating that “it is very beneficial, but it has not yet been implemented nationwide. The continuation of this matter”. This indicates that it was limited to the capital and not implemented nationwide.
Under the control of the Song government, the difficulty of promoting administrative orders is evident, especially considering the century between the late Tang and early Song, during which five dynasties and thirteen rulers changed hands. Ouyang Xiu lamented in the “New History of the Five Dynasties”, stating, “The Five Dynasties were established by military force, and their rise and fall were determined by arms”; “During this time, the world was in chaos, and China faced calamities, with usurpation and assassination occurring frequently.”
By the early Northern Song, regimes such as Later Shu, Southern Tang, and Wuyue still existed. The prolonged military conflicts caused significant destruction to the productivity of the time, leading to widespread suffering and hardship among the people. Feudal monarchs relied on military power to gain authority, and they paid little attention to medical work and the health of soldiers, while being extremely meticulous about court medicine, employing specialized personnel such as “imperial physicians”. The Tang Dynasty military physician Cui Zhitai described his reasons for writing, stating, “I have taken the time to study the classics and histories, and have also delved into medicine. Now, having selected various formulas and combined my thoughts, if it is not essential, how could I record it? In the end, I wrote this book in a solitary city, with four extremes, seeking medicine and visiting Daoists, finding many doubts in the principles. How could I sit and wait for death? This book is recorded for my private study, and I dare not pass it on to future generations, but it must be important, and I will not hide it.” This also reflects the cruelty and destructiveness of war, as well as the harsh living conditions in border areas, with poor transportation and low quality of life, leading to a shortage of medicines in the military.
How to effectively manage limited medical supplies in the military not only relates to the lives of soldiers but also to the stability of military power for commanders. The ancient military book “Taibai Yinjing”, written by Li Quan, the military governor of Hedong, provides insight into this. In the “Taibai Yinjing: On Medicinal Types”, 20 formulas are listed, with 15 being powdered formulas, indicating the widespread use of powdered formulas in the military.
For example, “Formula for Treating Seasonal Heat Disease: 20 pieces of Zhi Zi, 5 liang of Gan Jiang, 2 liang of Yin Chen, 5 liang of Sheng Ma, 5 liang of Da Huang, and 5 liang of Mang Xiao. Mix these six ingredients into a powder, and take with rice juice on an empty stomach, three qian per dose. If it is effective, continue; if not, use warm porridge. If it is too effective, stop with thin water, and avoid consuming Yin and Yang toxins. For treating red spots and sores: 20 pieces of Zhi Zi, 3 liang of Chi Hu, 2 liang of Huang Qin, and 5 liang of Mang Xiao. Grind these into a fine powder, mix with rice wine, and take three qian per dose, adjusting according to effectiveness.”
According to the statistics of formulas cited in “Secret Essentials of the Outer Chamber” compiled by Wang Tao, Cui Zhitai’s formulas also consist largely of decoctions, pills, and powdered formulas, with powdered formulas making up a significant portion. It can be seen that managing medicines in the military as powdered formulas may be the most cost-effective method, as they are easy to store, transport, and consume. Thus, it is evident that the military experiences of Emperor Taizu and Emperor Gaozong, along with their understanding of military medical care, led to the recognition and promotion of powdered formulas.
Conclusion
Before the Song Dynasty, the four most frequently recorded dosage forms in 21 medical texts were powders, decoctions, pills, and pastes, with powdered formulas appearing in all 21 texts, while decoctions and pills appeared in 20 texts, and pastes in 18 texts. This indicates that powdered formulas were already widely used in clinical practice before the Song Dynasty, and their use became even more widespread and popular during the Song Dynasty.
Additionally, it is essential to mention the role of Buddhism in promoting and facilitating powdered formulas, as powdered formulas were the most commonly used dosage form in the stone-carved prescriptions of the Longmen Grottoes, reflecting the characteristics of folk medicine at that time. Furthermore, Daoist Lin Dao Ren’s “Secret Formulas for Healing Wounds and Broken Bones” from the Tang Dynasty contains 46 formulas, 15 of which are powdered formulas. All of these have had a profound impact on the later application of powdered formulas.
In summary, the powdered formulas invented and created by Daoists gradually entered the field of medicine as Daoism spread among the populace and the literati, with their simplicity, convenience, and affordability deeply ingrained in people’s hearts. Coupled with the emperors’ exemplary role and promotion, the application of powdered formulas reached its peak during the Song Dynasty.
End of the text. Thank you for your patience in reading. If you find it interesting, please click “Like” and “View” at the bottom.
▼Previous Highlights▼An ancient formula that treats numbness throughout the body and nourishes blood to brighten the eyes. 12 simple formulas for 12 types of insomnia and TCM treatment methods for 12 diseases.
