The concepts of reality (实) and illusion (虚) originally stem from philosophical categories, under which the theory of reality and illusion in aesthetics has developed. In ancient Chinese artistic creation and criticism, the theory of reality and illusion has been widely applied.
Mr. Zong Baihua conducted an in-depth analysis and exploration of the reality and illusion in various forms of Chinese art, including opera, painting, calligraphy, architecture, seals, and dance, in his article “The Reality and Illusion in Chinese Artistic Expression.” In classical Chinese literature, especially in classical poetry, there exists a significant phenomenon of the combination of reality and illusion.
Ancient commentators on reality and illusion have said: what exists is real, what does not exist is illusory; what is based on evidence is real, what is fabricated is illusory; what is objective is real, what is subjective is illusory; what is concrete is real, what is abstract is illusory; what is apparent is real, what is hidden is illusory; what has action is real, what is mere words is illusory; the present is real, the future is illusory; what is known is real, what is unknown is illusory… Such commentary is quite classic. A careful analysis reveals that the reality and illusion in literature, while having similarities with other visual and auditory art forms, also have many differences. How does the reality and illusion in classical poetry differ from that in other art forms? What is the relationship between reality and illusion in classical poetry? The author wishes to make a superficial exploration of these questions and seek guidance from experts.
1. The Relationship Between Reality and Illusion and Emotion and Scene When analyzing the relationship between reality and illusion in artistic works, it is often said: “Illusion arises from reality, reality relies on illusion, reality is the foundation, and illusion is the application.” This phenomenon is particularly prominent in classical Chinese poetry. For example, in Li Bai’s poem “Sending Meng Haoran to Guangling from Yellow Crane Tower,” the lines “A solitary sail fades into the blue sky, only the Yangtze River flows to the horizon” describe a scene, but within this scene lies the poet’s deep affection for his departing friend, which is an expression of emotion. Describing the scene is reality, while expressing emotion is illusion. This is essentially a method of using scenery to express feelings or embedding feelings within scenery. Similarly, in Zhu Xi’s “Rowing at Water’s Mouth”: “Last night, the flat boat faced the rain, how was the wind and waves on the river? This morning, I try to roll up the lonely sail, the green mountains and clear waters remain abundant as ever.” The poem describes the experience of rowing on the river, which is a real scene; yet the poet embeds a philosophy of life within the narrative: the wind and rain are always temporary, the waves will eventually calm, and the green mountains and clear waters are eternal; the vitality of all beautiful things cannot be suppressed. This is illusion. This is what we refer to as using scenery to express feelings and embedding philosophy within narrative. Another example is Li Chen’s poem “Waterfall”: “Thousands of cliffs and ravines do not shy away from labor, only from afar can one know the source is high. Can streams and creeks ever be retained? Ultimately, they return to the sea as waves.” The poem depicts the majestic and spectacular image of a waterfall that ultimately overcomes obstacles to rush towards the sea, which is an objective scene, thus real; while the poet conveys his thoughts within this poem: an individual must not be satisfied with the status quo, but should aspire to great heights, fear no difficulties, and vow not to rest until the goal is achieved. This is an expression of ambition, which is illusion. In the above examples, the author places subjective emotions, ambitions, and philosophies upon objective scenes, “transforming scenery into thoughts and feelings.” From the perspective of content expression, it is the relationship between emotion and scene; from the perspective of expression technique, it is the relationship between reality and illusion.
2. The Relationship Between Reality in Classical Poetry and the Blank Space in Painting Art The technique of blank space is a common expressive method in traditional Chinese painting. For instance, the vivid fish painted by Bada Shanren and the shrimp painted by Qi Baishi have nothing else on the paper, yet we can feel the vastness of the water. This employs the technique of blank space, where the painting, though ethereal, possesses charm. Artists inspire viewers through the objects depicted, fully engaging the audience’s imagination to recreate the beautiful realm of art. There are many such examples in classical poetry, where readers can supplement the content of the scene based on their own experiences through imagination, thus gaining an aesthetic experience. For example, in Jia Dao’s “Seeking the Hermit and Not Finding Him”: “Under the pines, I ask the boy, he says the master has gone to gather herbs. He is somewhere in this mountain, but the clouds are deep and I do not know where.” The poem describes the dialogue between the author and the boy, but the content of the poet’s inquiry is omitted, and the appearance of the hermit is not introduced. However, we can imagine the hermit appearing amidst the high mountains and clouds, washing his feet by the mountain stream… This method of writing reality to express illusion can also be referred to as the blank space art in poetry. Classical Chinese poetry is characterized by concise language and rich meaning, and many poems employ this blank space art, especially those that use the technique of plain description to narrate scenes. The combination of reality and illusion thus achieves the effect of mutual generation.
3. The Relationship Between Reality and Illusion and the Technique of Highlighting When poets describe scenes, sometimes directly depicting the characteristics of the scene can convey the essence, but when the characteristics of certain scenes are difficult to express directly, or when the poet deliberately seeks a subtle beauty, they may adopt a method of indirect description to highlight or imply, thus achieving the purpose of expressing the scene. For example, when ancient people wrote about a woman’s beauty, they often said she could make flowers shy and the moon hide. Although there is no direct description of her beauty, it can evoke rich imagination and thus elicit an aesthetic experience. For instance, in “Mulberry on the Path”: “The traveler sees Luo Fu, lowers his load and strokes his beard. The young man sees Luo Fu, takes off his hat and adjusts his headscarf. The farmer forgets his plow, and the weeder forgets his hoe. They come back resentfully, but only sit and watch Luo Fu.” The poet highlights Luo Fu’s unparalleled beauty through the unusual reactions of the traveler, young man, farmer, and weeder (reality). Similarly, in “Pipa Song,” the poet mentions the moon in the river three times, but the purpose of describing the moon is to highlight the poet’s emotions. “Drunk and unable to enjoy the joy of parting, at the time of separation, the river is hazy with the moon,” highlights the poet’s desolate mood at the moment of parting. “The east boat and the west boat are silent, only the autumn moon in the river is white,” emphasizes the enchanting beauty of the pipa sound, drawing the audience in. “At the river mouth, I guard the empty boat, the moonlight around the boat makes the river water cold,” highlights the loneliness and sadness of the pipa player. The scene is reality, while the emotions highlighted through the scene are illusion. Another example is Li Bai’s “Farewell at the Jinling Tavern”: “The wind blows the willow flowers, filling the shop with fragrance, Wu girls press wine and urge guests to taste. Jinling’s young men come to see me off, wanting to leave but unable to, each raising a cup. Please ask the east flowing water, whose feelings of parting are longer or shorter?” The poet uses the rolling east flowing Yangtze River (reality) to highlight his deep friendship with his Jinling friends (illusion). In the above verses, reality and illusion are discussed from the perspective of the visibility of the scene, where the visible is reality and the hidden is illusion. Highlighting, on the other hand, is discussed from the perspective of the main and secondary aspects of the scene and the purpose of expression. Another example is Wei Yingwu’s “On the Huai River, Sending Thoughts to Friends in Guangling”: “The front boat is already distant, who will wait for me to cross? The autumn mountains rise with the evening bell, the Chu rain connects with the vast sea. The wind and waves fill my thoughts of separation, last night my hair changed. A lone bird flies southeast, where is Guangling?” This poem prominently highlights the characteristics of emotions through the scenery. “The autumn mountains rise with the evening bell, the Chu rain connects with the vast sea,” depicts the desolate and bleak evening scene, which highlights the poet’s loneliness and sorrow in missing friends. “A lone bird flies southeast” further contrasts the poet’s sorrow of missing home and family. The three types of the combination of reality and illusion in poetry serve the same purpose as the techniques of reality and illusion in painting, opera, and other art forms. That is, in classical poetry, the relationship between these three types of reality and illusion is interconnected with the relationship of reality and illusion in painting and opera. However, as poetry is a unique art form, the relationship between reality and illusion often has special manifestations within it.
4. Reality and Illusion in Metaphor Metaphor is a rhetorical device and a commonly used expression technique in classical poetry. Poets use this method to vividly and vividly describe specific scenes to express their feelings. For example, in Li Yu’s “Yumeiren”: “When will the spring flowers and autumn moon end, how many past events do I know! Last night in the small building, the east wind blew again, the homeland is unbearable to recall under the bright moon.” Li Yu, having lost his country and family, separated from his wife and children, and reduced to a prisoner, suffers humiliation and shame throughout his life, with resentment difficult to express. The poet uses a metaphor to express the depth of his sorrow: “How much sorrow can you have? Just like a river of spring water flowing east.” Transforming illusion into reality, expressing reality through illusion, the “sorrow” is materialized into a river of spring water flowing east, vividly expressing the endless sorrow. Similarly, in He Zhu’s “Qingyu Case”: “The waves do not cross the horizontal pond road, but only watch the fragrant dust go. Who can spend the splendid years with me? The moon bridge and flower courtyard, the intricate windows and red doors, only spring knows where to go. The flying clouds are drifting at dusk, the colorful brush writes the heart-wrenching lines. If you ask how much idle sentiment there is? A river of smoke and grass, the city full of wind and catkins, the rain of plums in the yellow season!” The poet imagines the scene of a woman’s life: perhaps she is on the bridge stepping on the moon, admiring flowers in the deep courtyard, or living in a red pavilion with carved windows. “The moon bridge and flower courtyard” describe the beautiful outdoor environment, while “the intricate windows and red doors” depict the luxurious and elegant residence. Although these eight characters describe an illusory realm, they are brilliant and splendid, giving a sense of comfort and pleasure. However, followed by “only spring knows where to go,” reveals the poet’s longing and loneliness. Morning flowers and evening moons, beautiful times further contrast the poet’s desolation and loneliness. “If you ask how much idle sorrow there is, a river of smoke and willow, the city full of wind and catkins, the rain of plums in the yellow season!” The poet uses exaggerated metaphors to transform the intangible into the tangible, expressing the infinite sadness and sorrow in his heart. “A river of smoke and willow,” “the city full of wind and catkins,” and “the rain of plums in the yellow season” vividly express the overwhelming sorrow that cannot be dispelled. This method of using metaphor to express emotions, expressing reality through illusion, and transforming the intangible into the tangible is more vivid and impactful than directly expressing one’s feelings.
5. The Current Scene is Real, the Past Scene is Illusory The past scene, whether experienced by the author or historically occurred, is often written into poetry through a certain relationship with the current real scene to express the poet’s inner feelings. For example, in Li Yu’s “Yumeiren” (When will the spring flowers and autumn moon end), the lines “the carved railing and jade steps should still be there, only the red face has changed” reflect the poet’s nostalgia for his homeland; the “carved railing and jade steps” may still exist, but the beauty has aged. However, these are not the real scenes before the eyes, thus they are illusory. The word “only” conveys an infinite regret and melancholy of losing the country and family, and the world has changed. Similarly, in Li Yu’s “Wang Jiangnan” (How much hatred, in last night’s dream), the lines “still like the old days in the upper garden, the car flows like water and the horse like a dragon. The flowers and moon are just right in the spring breeze” vividly depict the prosperous life of the past, forming a strong contrast with the poet’s current desolate situation, using illusion to contrast reality, and using illusion to write reality, highlighting the heavy sorrow after waking from the dream. There are many poems that express emotions through writing about past scenes. Especially, the nostalgic poems that use ancient events to satirize the present often employ this method. For example, Liu Yuxi’s “Remembering the Ancient at Xisai Mountain”: “Wang Jun’s boat descended to Yizhou, the spirit of Jinling has dimmed. A thousand fathoms of iron chains sink to the bottom of the river, a piece of surrender flag emerges from the stone. How many times has the world mourned the past, the mountain shape still rests on the cold current. Now encountering the day of being at home in the four seas, the old fort is desolate with reeds and autumn.” The first four lines narrate the scene of Wang Jun leading an army to conquer Eastern Wu during the Western Jin Dynasty, which is an illusory description. The poet uses the example of Eastern Wu’s rise and fall as the basis for the following discussion. “How many times has the world mourned the past, the mountain shape still rests on the cold current. Now encountering the day of being at home in the four seas, the old fort is desolate with reeds and autumn,” these four lines tell people: the mountains and rivers remain, but the human affairs have changed.
Those in power who do not act according to the laws of social development and governance, losing the most fundamental thing, the hearts of the people, will also transition from prosperity to decline. At the same time, it reflects the poet’s deep concern about the crisis hidden beneath the surface prosperity of the Li Tang dynasty during the “day of being at home in the four seas”: now the rivers and mountains are unified, and the four seas are one family, but who can guarantee that the sorrowful past will not be repeated? Another example is Li Bai’s “Viewing Ancient Events in Yuezhong”: “King Goujian of Yue defeated Wu and returned, the soldiers returned home in brocade. The palace maids are like flowers in the spring hall, now only the partridges fly.” The first three lines describe the past events of King Goujian of Yue enduring hardships to ultimately defeat Wu and return in victory. The poet vividly depicts the prosperity of the past, contrasting it with the current scene of only partridges flying in the former royal city, thus expressing the poet’s profound reflection on history. Another example is Su Shi’s “Nian Nu Jiao: Remembering the Red Cliffs”: “Thinking of the past, when the public was young, Xiao Qiao had just married, with heroic posture and elegance. With a feather fan and silk scarf, in the midst of laughter, the strong enemy turned to ashes.” The author shapes the image of Zhou Yu during the Three Kingdoms period, who was graceful, talented, and handsome, recreating the historically significant scene of the Battle of Red Cliffs, which is an illusory description. The admiration and praise for historical figures contain the poet’s dissatisfaction with his own situation, combining reality and illusion, contrasting and complementing each other, expressing the author’s thoughts and feelings in the comparison of ancient and modern. Of course, there are also instances where reality and illusion complement each other. For example, Xin Qiji’s “Remembering the Ancient at Jingkou North Solid Pavilion”: “Yuan Jia’s hasty actions, sealing the wolf’s dwelling, ultimately led to a hurried glance northward.” Xin Qiji uses the historical fact of the Song Emperor’s hasty northern expedition, which ended in a disastrous defeat, to warn those in power: if they wish to attack Jin, they must be fully prepared and cannot act hastily.
6. The Current Scene is Real, the Imagined Future Scene is Illusory There are many lines in classical poetry that imagine future scenes, where the poet contrasts or highlights them with the current scene and feelings, using illusion to contrast reality, to express their inner feelings. For example, Liu Yong’s “Yue Ling Ling”: “Where will I wake up tonight, on the willow bank with the morning wind and the waning moon?” This imagines the scene seen after waking from a drunken stupor. The weak willow leans against the morning wind, and the waning moon hangs on the branches, which is an illusory description. The imagined scene adds a layer of parting sadness to the current scene of separation from a lover. Similarly, Li Shangyin’s “Night Rain Sent to the North”: “You ask about the return date, there is no date. The night rain in Bashan rises in the autumn pond. When will we cut the candle at the west window together, and talk about the night rain in Bashan?” The latter two lines express the author’s imagination of the future reunion, where he can share the feelings of missing his loved ones while listening to the autumn rain tonight, with deep longing overflowing in words. Another example is Du Fu’s “Moonlit Night”: “When will I lean against the empty curtain, the double shadows reflecting the tear stains dry?” These two lines imagine the future scene of reunion with his wife. After enduring hardships, the couple reunites, and when emotions run deep, tears flow. This imagined joy of reunion (illusion) perfectly contrasts the sorrow and pain of separation.
7. Writing from One’s Own Perspective as Reality, Writing from the Other’s Perspective as Illusion This method is similar to the previous one but differs in that it is a form of writing from the perspective of the other party. The similarity lies in both imagining the other party; the difference is that the latter form of imagination starts from the perspective of the other party, hence it is referred to as the “counter-writing method.” For example, in Du Fu’s “Moonlit Night,” the first four lines: “Tonight, the moon in Fuzhou, only I watch alone in the boudoir. I miss my little children, who do not understand why their mother misses Chang’an.” This poem is written by the poet during the An Lushan Rebellion, when he is trapped in Chang’an, missing his wife and children. Originally, it is the poet’s longing for his family, but he adopts the “counter-writing method.” From the perspective of the other party, he imagines how his wife thinks of him under the moonlight, while the children do not understand why their mother misses Chang’an. Some critics say: “The public thinks of home, but thinks of family members instead.” This method is more subtle than saying how much one misses their wife and children, but the emotions achieve a two-way communication effect, making the feelings deeper and thus more moving, with greater artistic appeal. Common examples of poems using the “counter-writing method” include Gao Shi’s “New Year’s Eve”: “In the cold lamp of the inn, I cannot sleep alone, what makes the guest’s heart turn so sad? Tonight, my hometown thinks of thousands of miles away, my hair will be gray by tomorrow.” The poet expresses his longing for his hometown and family, but instead of saying he misses his family, he imagines that his family is thinking of him thousands of miles away. Wang Wei’s “Remembering My Brothers in Shandong on the Ninth Day of the Ninth Month”: “Alone in a foreign land as a stranger, every festive occasion doubles the longing for home. I know my brothers are climbing high, but one person is missing among the many who insert dogwood.” The poet, who has doubled his longing for his family during the festival, does not say he misses his brothers in his hometown, but instead imagines that his brothers miss him while climbing high and inserting dogwood on the Double Ninth Festival.
The poet imagines that they are climbing high and looking far, and that their hearts are always following him. This kind of distant imagination vividly expresses the traveler’s sorrow of separation. This method of writing produces different artistic effects from the previous one. For example, He Zhu’s “Qingyu Case”: “The moon bridge and flower courtyard, the intricate windows and red doors, only spring knows where to go,” expresses only one-sided longing, sadness, and heartache. However, using the counter-writing method communicates the feelings of both parties, making the longing mutual. This longing contains sorrow and sadness, as well as warmth and comfort. The previous examples illustrate the various ways in which reality and illusion are expressed in classical poetry, and the techniques of reality and illusion can also be interpreted from the perspectives of form and sound patterns in poetry. However, as this article focuses on guiding students to appreciate the techniques of reality and illusion in classical poetry, further elaboration is not provided.